Nebuchadnezzar II,

its policy in the Levant, its construction

Nebuchadnezzar II

Nebuchadnezzar II (Nabu-kudurri-usur) appears in history as the most important of the last kings of Babylonia, who reigned from 604 to 562 B.C. He was the second of the eleventh dynasty of Babylonian rulers (the so-called Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean dynasty), which lasted until the capture of Babylon by the Persian king. Cyrus II the Great. Nebuchadnezzar II was the eldest son and successor of the Chaldean king Nabopolassar (Nabu-apla-usur), founder of the dynasty. Nabopolassar had taken control of Babylonia from King Sinsharishkun of Assyria, in the process of expelling the Assyrian armies from Babylonia, in 616 B.C. Joining forces with Cyaxare, king of the Medes, he ravaged Nineveh from top to bottom in 612 B.C., which would disappear from the memory of mankind, according to the prophecies of the books of Nahum and Zephaniah, which describe its destruction (Nahum 3,1-19; Sophonie 2 and 3, 1-7).

Image opposite: a cartouche on a jar bearing the name of Neco (or Nekao II). He successfully waged war against Josiah, king of Judah, who was killed at the battle of Megiddo in 609 BC. Three months later, he captured Jehoahaz, Josiah's son and his successor as head of Judah, who died in Egypt, and imposed a tribute on the kingdom of Judah. Finally, he established Joiakim, Josiah's eldest son, as the new king of Judah. This episode is recalled in the Bible, more precisely in the Second Book of Kings, chapter 23, verses 30 to 35 © Gift of Jerome F. Snyder.

Nebuchadnezzar himself defeated an Egyptian army (under Pharaoh Neco II) at Karkemish in a battle that consolidated his control over the region and severely reduced the power of Egypt, which fell under the sway of the neo-Babylonian ruler. He was an empire builder who led successful campaigns against most neighboring states, including Phoenicia, Philistia, Judah, Ammon, Moab and others, and in the process acquired considerable wealth and power.

Cylinders and their functions

It was customary for Babylonian kings to cement their relationship with the gods through the act of restoring their temples. These achievements were then recorded in cuneiform on clay cylinders (prepared by a court scribe) which were then buried in the foundations of the restored temples. The cylinders were lasting commemorations of the king's loyalty to the gods.

Image opposite: Cyrus II's cylinder in which the sovereign declares authorization for the return of all Babylonian exiles © Théo Truschel.

This very public act also helped create an appearance of legitimacy for the ruler with his subjects and vassals. For example, the Cyrus Cylinder (539 BC, an edict for the return of all Babylonian exiles), one of the greatest examples in existence, praises Cyrus as a benefactor. It's worth noting that the latter had acceded to the throne by deposing the Babylonian king Nabonidus, and he apparently believed that this and similar rituals would legitimize his position with the gods and his subjects.

The destruction of the First Temple

Both in the Scriptures and Chronicles It is reported that Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem (circa 589 BC). Zedekiah, who had been appointed tributary king of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar II, had revolted and made an alliance with Egypt, in the person of Pharaoh Hophra (called Vaphres by Manetho, Apries by Herodotus). The siege was particularly violent (2 Kings 25, 3-8). When Nebuchadnezzar finally invaded the city in 587 BC, Zedekiah's sons were put to death in front of their father, whose eyes were gouged out, and taken into captivity in chains until his death.

Image opposite: a 3d proposal of Solomon's Temple in its version with the covered vestibule. © Théo Truschel.

Image opposite: Pharaoh Hophra (or Apries). In 588 BC, Hophra took up the fight against Nebuchadnezzar II, who had seized Jerusalem (third deportation of the Jews to Babylon). He seized Gaza and supported Tyre and Sidon in their resistance to the Babylonians. Public domain.

The highlight of the campaign was the destruction of the city and the Temple ; the city was plundered, and the rest of the population taken into exile. Jerusalem was completely razed to the ground by Nebu-zar-adan, the captain of Nebuchadnezzar's bodyguards. Solomon's Temple was destroyed and the region was depopulated, with the exception of a few winegrowers and farmers (Jérémie 52,14-16),
«...He burned the house of the Lord, the king's house, and all the houses of Jerusalem; he delivered all the houses of any importance to the fire. All the army of the Chaldeans, which was with the chief of the guards, demolished all the walls forming the enclosure of Jerusalem. Nebu-zar-adan, chief of the guards, took captive some of the poorest of the people, those who had remained in the city, those who had surrendered to the king of Babylon, and the rest of the multitude...».
It was at this point in the Scriptures that the Ark of the Covenant of the Temple of Jerusalem disappears from history.

The biblical Nebuchadnezzar

The dream of Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel

A large part of Daniel describes this prophet's experiences at the court of Nebuchadnezzar. The king was troubled by dreams or visions, and demanded that the wise men of his court tell him both what he had dreamed and its interpretation. Daniel, then in exile at the king's court, was the only man who (by divine intervention) could tell Nebuchadnezzar what his dream was and explain its meaning.
Consequently, Nebuchadnezzar lavished him with gifts, placed him above all other wise men, and appointed him ruler of the province of Babylon.

Ishtar's gate

The inner city wall is pierced by eight gates (George 1992:15), which are listed in the fifth tablet of Tintir = Babylon, lines 49-56. A «ceremonial» name is assigned to each of these gates, guaranteeing the city divine protection. The processional routes of the most important deities lead from each of the gates.
One of Babylon's most distinctive surviving monuments is one of its eight great gateways, located to the north of the city: the Gate of Ishtar.
It's an imposing brick structure decorated with rows of figurations of the deities' emblematic animals. Placed like sentinels, they are supposed to intimidate and ward off evil spirits, protecting the city and its inhabitants.

Image opposite: an artistic view of the Ishtar Gate (in the background) and the Processional Way. © akg images/Balage/Balogh/archaeologyillustrated.com

This gate, erected around 575 BC, is dedicated to the eponymous goddess Ishtar, goddess of physical love and war. She appears as the very symbol of Babylon. Her «ceremonial» name is Ishtar Sakipat Tebisha, or «Ishtar is victorious over her enemies». The Gate of Ishtar is built on the principle of the double gate, i.e. sandwiched between an outer and inner wall. Although excavations have failed to find the door leaves, ancient texts such as the commemorative tablet describe them as being made of cedar wood with bronze bands.
- The first (outer) gate is 48 m long and 15-18 m high, flanked by two towers on either side of the passageway. This is the one on display at Berlin's Pergamon Museum.
- The second (inner) gate is the largest. It is set into the inner rampart and also has two towers. Between the two towers is an open courtyard. The constraints of the Pergamon Museum's structure prevented the reconstruction of this second gate.

Image opposite: a model of the Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way, 250 m long and 20-24 m wide. © Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

Archaeologists estimate that there have been several phases of construction, each of which has altered the setting:
- The first phase is characterized by enamelled decoration and the last phase by bas-reliefs in enamelled and coloured brick. Rows of bulls and «snake-dragons» (mushkushu) can be seen on the walls of the doors. The bull symbolizes the god Adad (god of Storm or Time). The lion, symbol of Ishtar, is not present on the walls of this entrance. Near the gateway is an inscription (partially restored) by Nebuchadnezzar detailing its construction (extract):
«...I (Nebuchadnezzar) cast the bases of the gate toward the level of the subterranean waters and built them of bluestone...on the walls of the inner chamber of the gate are bulls and dragons, which I have magnificently adorned with a lustre of luxury for all men...in fear...»
The entrances to the inner city bear witness to this quest for grandeur, which finds magnificent expression in the monumental Ishtar Gate.

Ishtar's gate and mushkushu

On the walls of the Ishtar Gate, alternating with the bull, a strange animal is depicted. Archaeologist R. Koldewey identifies this fantastic animal as a sirrush (dragon, a word derived from Akkadian; the word mushkushu is the modern transcription). He describes it as follows:
«...a slender body covered in scales, a long slender tail covered in scales and a long neck covered in scales surmounted by a snake's head. A long, forked tongue protrudes from its mouth...».

Image opposite: a mushkushu fresco on the wall of the processional way. © Théo Truschel.

This «snake-dragon» represents a hybrid creature, with the tail and body of a snake, the hind legs in the form of eagle talons or claws, and the front legs resembling those of a lion. The dragon's serpent head (mushkushu) is a representation of the god Marduk.
Some historians draw a link with the mysterious animal mentioned in the book of Bel and the Dragon (apocryphal book of the Bible). This book tells us that the Babylonian temple of Bel (another name for Marduk) is guarded by a «dragon». Nebuchadnezzar proposes to the Hebrew prophet of Yahweh, Daniel, to confront this «divinity», whom he finally kills.

Image opposite: Ishtar Gate. © Théo Truschel.

Other historians also believe that the Bible refers to mushkushu in chapter 40 verses 15-19 of the book of Job. The animal translated in some biblical versions as a hippopotamus is actually a mushkushu :
«Behold [the hippopotamus], to whom I have given life as to you! He eats grass like an ox.
Here he is! His strength is in his loins, and his vigor in the muscles of his belly; he bends his tail as firm as a cedar; The nerves of his thighs are intertwined; his bones are tubes of brass, his limbs are like bars of iron...in the frame of the lotus, he lies hidden in the reeds of the marsh...»
Cryptozoologists such as Roy P. Mackal, Willy Ley and Bernard Heuvelmans propose yet another theory: the mushkushu is an animal spotted or captured in ancient times by Neobabylonians on the banks of the Congo River in equatorial Africa. Mokélé-mbembé (literally "He who can stop the flow of the river") is the local name given today to this animal, which is surprisingly close to a sauropod dinosaur measuring around 13 metres. Its presence has been repeatedly reported by the inhabitants of the lakes and marshes near Likouala, particularly in Lake Télé (Republic of Congo). According to the natives, it feeds mainly on the fruits of a local plant, the Malombo. It is therefore herbivorous, but some witnesses claim that it also kills humans and hippos, probably to defend its territory. Its current existence has not been confirmed, despite several recent expeditions (between 1902 and 2002), various testimonies collected on site and a relatively precise drawing made by several witnesses.
Today, however, the representation of the mushkushu on the walls of Ishtar's gate is considered more symbolic. This fantastic animal appears as a synthesis of different divinities in the highly complex mythology of Mesopotamian history.

The Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way

The Processional Way follows the Ishtar Gate. It can be followed for around 800 meters. It is along this street that effigies of the gods are carried in procession during the New Year's Festival. This Way is referred to as Aj-ibur-shapû, which is translated in various ways: «the invisible enemy should not exist» (Marzahn 1994b:14), «Let not the arrogant prosper» (George 1992:67l.64), «Let not the obstinate adversary remain healthy» (GAD) S/l 492).

Image opposite: The Processional Way, partially reconstructed at Berlin's Pergamon Museum © Théo Truschel.

This monumental entrance to the inner city was built in three stages by Nebuchadnezzar. Excavations have uncovered various levels of pavement, portals and towers, as well as glazed and unglazed bricks decorated with dragons and bulls. In the third and final stage of construction, access to the city was via a magnificent 250-meter-long avenue, flanked by seven-meter-thick walls with three series of bastions. These walls, surmounted by crenellations similar to those seen on gold plaques on a necklace unearthed from a tomb in Babylon, are intersected at intervals by slightly projecting towers. They are decorated with brick friezes in relief and enamelled in bright colors (blue, yellow, white and red), featuring 120 lions, the emblem of Ishtar. Approaching the Gate, you climb a 20-24-metre-wide ramp to a height of 12-14 metres above ground level. The base of the roadway is made of clay, sand and rubble. On top of this layer is a sub-pavement of bricks set in asphalt, which serves as a foundation for the stone paving. Remains of the roadway suggest that, like our present-day streets, the Voie Processionnelle was divided into a central lane reserved for traffic and sidewalks on either side for pedestrians.
The Processional Way continues beyond the Ishtar Gate, following the eastern wall of the Southern Palace, to the Etemenanki, which it bypasses to the west and spans the Euphrates via a bridge. Alongside the Palace, the roadway descends to city level.
The parallelism of the aisles and the perfect symmetry of the architectural organization lend a solemn character that contrasts with previous Assyrian achievements.

The Ishtar Gate and the history of archaeological excavations

The ruins of ancient Babylon had already been visited several times in medieval times, notably by travelers Benjamin de Tudèle and Petahia de Ratisbonne. Benjamin was the first to recognize the remains of the ziggurat. In 1787, Abbé de Beauchamp examined several ancient objects unearthed on the site. In 1811, C. J. Rich, the British resident of the Est India Company, began exploring the ruins of Babylon.

Image opposite: The first archaeological excavations at Babylon. Public domain.

Not only does he describe the hitherto mythical site, using drawings by Bellino of Tübingen in Narrative of a journey to the Site of Babylon (Récit d'un voyage sur le site de Babylone, London 1839), but he did bring back a few inscriptions, tablets and seals.

Image opposite: the Ishtar Gate when it was first discovered. Public domain.

He sold them to the British Museum and to Professor G. F. Grotefend, who was working on deciphering cuneiform writing. Superficial explorations were carried out by A. H. Layard in 1850 (who later devoted himself to excavating Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh) and by F. Fresnel and J. Oppert in 1852. The latter two produced the first detailed plan of the city. W. Budge carried out excavations for the British Museum in 1887, and H. Rassam carried out unscientific excavations in the 1870s and 1880s. In the 1970s, a group of German researchers also took a brief interest in the Babylonian site, and a team from the University of Turin surveyed various parts of the city in the 1970s and 1980s.
Further work, interrupted by the war, was undertaken by the Directorate of Iraqi Antiquities from 1958 onwards, but this was more of a reconstruction program. A smaller reproduction of the Ishtar Gate was erected in Iraq under Saddam Hussein to serve as the entrance to a museum that was never built. This scale model was damaged during the war.